Murder hornet has become the popularized name for Vespa mandarinia, but the established common name is simply Asian giant hornet — a name that describes where the insect is from and what it looks like. While in this case of this species the colloquial and standardized common name are quite different, common names aren’t always as straightforward as Asian giant hornet. They can be just as cryptic as the name murder hornet. 

“Sometimes common names are very misleading or they are not very informative,” says Adam Brunke, Chair of the Common Names Committee for the Entomological Society of Canada (ESC). “It’s a communication issue.”

However, ease of communication is exactly what a common name is for. They’re used to bridge the divide between those who study a field of biology, such as the study of insects called entomology, and those who don’t. So when a name fails to add ease, has confusing descriptors, or uses derogatory language, there’s a problem. 

These issues are what the Better Common Names Project aims to address. Led by the Entomological Society of America (ESA) and a steering committee made up of many ESC members, the Better Common Names Project involves revisiting common insect names, proposing new ones, and approving a new standard common name for both the United States and Canada. 

The first renaming for the project was for Lymantria dispar where the official common name “gypsy moth” was changed to “spongy moth” due to the term gypsy being an ethnic slur for the Romani people. The new name “spongy” refers to the insect’s distinct sponge-like egg masses. It’s a characteristic that’s unique to the insect and easy to understand. 

Male spongy moth (Lymantria dispar) // Credit: S. McCann; Source: Entomological Society of Canada

“What happens is that we don’t actually propose any names ourselves. We get proposals from the entomological community and they do some background research and provide a rationale. They explain why any existing names are appropriate or not appropriate,” Brunke says. “Normally, there’s two or three names that are already out there, or maybe the name exists in French, but not English, or vice versa. So this is a bit of a special case where we had a pest insect with a very, very dominant name.”

It’s easy to look at this project or renaming happening in any field as only a means of creating a more inclusive and equitable society. And while that’s certainly not a bad thing to consider, the main goal is to enable clear communication and understanding. 

Though we often learn and accept terms for what they are and can adapt to a pre-existing language, it doesn’t mean the language is as effective as it could be. In fact, it’s possible people may get the wrong idea of what an insect is or does if a name is too ambiguous or nondescript.

Take the case of a newly introduced tick in Canada.

“It was starting to get a lot of media attention because it is a potential disease vector.” 

A disease vector is something that carries and spreads disease, like an insect, which is definitely information that the broader community should be aware of. But the way in which this information is communicated should be done carefully. It was important that this insect be given a name that’s more than just clickbait. No one needs a new case of “murder hornets”.

“We were trying to use something neutral and something descriptive before it could, you know, sort of get out of hand or go in a direction we’d rather it not,” Brunke says, emphasizing that a common name should help someone identify an insect. This is especially important for those monitoring for a specific pest that may be harmful or damaging to the environment.

Murder hornet news headline // Source: Saanich News

Identifying, suggesting, and standardizing common names is definitely not a one-person job. After all, there are an estimated 10 quintillion insects out there. The collaborative effort of the entomological societies and the great entomological community are key for identifying what names work and what don’t. 

Though there are many experts and enthusiasts out there, it doesn’t necessarily mean they always have the answers about why a common name exists as it does. Their origin may ultimately remain unknown because no one documented the rationale and it’s because of this that a common name may come into question.

“That’s the problem. We never get the reasons for things.”

If there isn’t a well-understood reason for something or if in hindsight a reason isn’t very well justified, then there’s room for change. Just like science itself, it’s a process of hypothesizing, researching, and concluding. And if you don’t agree with the outcome, or in this case, the name? Create a new hypothesis, test it, and come up with a more acceptable, well-founded standard.

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Modern American death traditions have several key components, but the most environmentally damaging components are embalming of the body, the use of caskets*, and cemetery interment.

Embalming became a cornerstone of an American death during the Civil War as embalming allowed for the bodies of dead soldiers to stay intact on the long train rides home for burial. However, embalming’s ability to temporarily preserve a body is due to its ability to kill or inhibit decay-causing bacteria, but the damage also extends to other biological tissues. The main chemical responsible for this preservation is formalin (formaldehyde mixed in water), which is a highly toxic carcinogen and is linked to a variety of health problems. Combined with formalin’s long-term potency, the liters of formalin put into the ground with an embalmed body can leach into the surrounding ground contaminating the soil.

While not directly damaging, caskets and cemeteries also negatively impact the environment. The materials used in caskets, wood, plastics, metals, fabrics, and paints/varnishes, all create different environmental hazards in their production, transportation, and use. The use of grave vaults**, which are subterraneous boxes for the casket, further contribute to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by using concrete and requiring fossil fuel powered machinery. However, these impacts are smaller when compared to the continual use of fertilizers and pesticides used by cemeteries to maintain the lush green grass appearance. The large amount of space, combined with the fertilizer-enriched water run-off and chemical hazards these cemeteries create, all contribute to prolonged environmental damage.

Source: Pexels

These negative impacts of modern funerals can be countered in two ways: swapping aspects of the burial for greener alternatives or changing the burial form entirely.

The option to use more eco-friendly substitutes is possible in many cases. Embalming, which is optional***, may not be used at all and if a body needs to be preserved short-term, keeping the body in refrigeration works well. Alternatively, if a body requires embalming, there are a growing number of non-formalin options available, such as the Enigma brand of embalming fluid, which provide similar preservation but with decreased environmental impact. As for alternative casket options, they can be made of recyclable and/or biodegradable materials or replaced by shrouds, and some careful planning prior to burial can allow for a non-vaulted and/or natural burial ground (burial grounds that do not have heavy maintenance). Some natural burial areas can even provide environmental protection to habitats; these are called conservation burials.

Overview of a traditional vs. natural burial // Source: Stephen J. Beard, designer: Nathan Butler 

The option to change the burial form often centers on what form the body is in when buried, an intact body or ash. Cremation is a better option than the standard American burial, but cremation has negative environmental impacts too. The heating of the body to around 1000°C for multiple hours requires prolonged burning of fossil fuels. Additionally, the high temperatures burn a variety of body tissues and substances creating different hazardous gases, including dental mercury, which is vaporized and released into the environment leading to health hazards in the surrounding area.

Many of the negative effects can be reduced by using different forms of cremation, forms which still create “ashes” but by different processes. Water cremation (aka alkaline hydrolysis) cremates a body by putting the body into a water-lye solution which over the course of a few hours leaves an intact skeleton that is then processed into ash****. The process requires the same amount of water consumption as a single person would use over a two-day period, needs a fraction of the energy of fire cremations, and has no direct GHG emissions. Another eco-friendly option that is still in development is promession, which would be a freezing cremation. The method would break down the body by freeze drying it, then vibrating the body making small pieces, which then have excess water and metal removed, creating ashes. Though this process is still developing, the process offers an energy efficient, non-toxin producing method for burial practices.

Overview of water cremation // Source: The Planet Magazine

Overview of promession process // Source: Design Boom

With life’s guarantee of death, the environmental impact of death will always be present, which is why greener options for burial are needed.

If you are interested in green burial options, the best plan is to explore what options are available to you – internet searches and local funeral homes are a good place to start. Other resources include, the YouTube channel “Ask a Mortician”, books, particularly “Grave Matters” by Mark Harris, or societies, such as The Green Burial Society of Canada.

Notes

* Fun fact: caskets are rectangular funeral boxes with hinged lids which differs from a coffin, a tapered box with a removable lid.

** Grave vaults are often sold as being required by cemeteries because it prevents the casket from collapsing underground, which keeps the ground level even, thereby maintaining a consistent lawn aesthetic

*** It is important to know that corpses, unless in rare circumstances, are safe; embalming is not a requirement to make a corpse safe to be near or touch.

**** Despite TV/film depictions of cremated human remains, remains do not fully become ash by burning. Burning breaks down the soft tissues and some smaller bones but larger bones, and teeth, with their protective enamel coating, are left behind. These bone fragments are then ground into ash.

This article is part of our March 2021 Western Student Editorial Series – a series that showcases the works of students in the Collaborative Specialization in Environment and Sustainability program. Read more articles from this series here!

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Far from discussing fish biology, the film speaks to the legacy of colonial oppression experienced by indigenous communities from the 16th century when Chile became a settlement of the Spanish Crown to this day. The film focuses on a Mapuche community in the south of Chile. The Mapuche people make up 84 percent of the indigenous population in Chile. They remained independent throughout the colonial period and were forced to join the Chilean state in the 1880s, under siege by the Chilean army. It took about a century for the Mapuche collective land rights to be recognized by a 1993 Indigenous Law, yet there are recurring confrontations over collective land and water rights and human rights abuses. To this day, Mapuche people record some of the lowest social and economic indicators in the country. It is no surprise to see in the film a wealthy settler family vacationing in their rural estate serviced by Indigenous employees in the house and on the property.

Chile // Source: Audley Travel

Settler colonization is a distinct form of colonization that “covers its tracks” (Veracini, 2011, p. 3). To succeed in their colonial project, settlers need to extinguish or erase the former inhabitants of the land. One of the film’s scenes illustrates the engineered amnesia that permeates the contemporary settler’s consciousness. In a casual conversation among male settlers, one of them contends: “What I don’t understand is this idea of ‘recovering the lands’. They talk about the historical debt. What historical debt? They have never owned anything!” To which another responds: “But their ancestors have.” The first man disagrees: “Noooo. They were collectors and hunters. The agricultural activity was minimum. They walk through these woods. They usufruct the woods. They were not owners.” The conversation went on as a trifle and ended in laughter.

The film is not about fish, but rather the treatment of invasive species reminds how in settler colonization projects, binary language is used to establish and justify a society of deserving “haves” and undeserving “have-nots” (Harding, 2006), of us-who-belong-here vs them-who-do-not. In one of the scenes, a boy tells Pancho that the carps “come from another place.”  Pancho explains: “Look, the carps are originally from the Amur river that divides China from Russia. They brought them here to exterminate the algae, but they didn’t tell them that they reproduced very fast.” The ironic similarity with Indigenous people’s extermination by the European settlers was not brought up in the conversation which, again, ended in laughter. In face of the threat posed by over productive invaders, Pancho justified their extermination by all means necessary, including detonating explosives in the lagoon. The violence of the method soon triggered concerns in his daughter Manena.

Violence is an underlying theme throughout the film. Pancho’s choices seem to indicate a form of internalized violence; in addition to bombing the carps, he also installed an electric fence to protect the family lakeside estate. Latent violence grows in the Ovalle household as the movie progresses with Manena realizing that not only is the carp population aggressively controlled, but their Indigenous neighbours are also being dispossessed of their land and ways of life. The film depicts institutional violence led by the state police, los carabinieros, in a raid against a Mapuche village. Inter-community violence is also visible though lopsided, as animal and human casualties are only recorded on the Mapuche side: first, a Mapuche farmer loses a sheep against the electric fence, then a Mapuche worker, Manena’s friend, loses his life, also by electrocution.

Los carabinieros de Chile // Source: Illustrado Noticias

Although this film brings to the foreground the colonial legacies the Mapuche nation faces in Chile, there are certain limitations in this representation. One of the most questionable aspects is the viewpoint from where the audience accesses the story, in this case, Manena, a settler teenage girl that in her vacation begins to perceive the injustices indigenous communities endure in her father’s land. Even though Mapuche women and men appear on screen, the privileged voice is Manena’s. This can lead us to question which voices have the power to be heard, not only in the film but in the public sphere.

Mapuche men are the indigenous characters with most presence throughout the film; in fact, Manena’s friend is the common thread that opens and closes the film. However, this is not the case for Mapuche women. Dedicated to the care work within the settler’s household, they seem to be voiceless presences with no agency whatsoever. This representation falls short given the central role indigenous women have across Latin America in standing up against both environmental injustices and gender violence, up to such a point that scholars have observed a feminization of these fights, this is, more and more women join activist manifestations. Even more so, although the protagonist of the film is a girl, the representation of all the women is an aspect that deserves consideration. Manena’s mother is a character stripped of agency by being constantly silenced by her husband who diminishes her. She drowns her sorrows in alcohol and plays no part in the family business or her children’s education.  

The Summer of the Flying Fish takes place in southern Chile, but its message is global. It speaks to institutionalized violence and systemic racism in other settler colonies including Australia, the United States, and Canada. It compels viewers to turn a critical eye on themselves. To some viewers, maybe, this could be an unsettling exercise to examine their privileges and realize their complicity in perpetuating colonial ideology. About her interest in filmmaking and politics, filmmaker Marcela Said shares that she wants to “shoot what’s invisible, atmospherical… the tension.” The film ends leaving the viewer to know more. How far will Manena go in her standup against her father? How will the Mapuche community react to the loss of one of their youths?  Said can be commended for casting light on the invisible in this atmospheric and politics-laden drama.

This article is part of our March 2021 Western Student Editorial Series – a series that showcases the works of students in the Collaborative Specialization in Environment and Sustainability program. Read more articles from this series here!

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Environmental Value

Rivers come in many different shapes and sizes and present themselves as habitat for many species across the globe. Rivers are known to have some of the richest biodiversity in the world, and yes it goes beyond just fish. From snails, to alligators, to pollutant-sucking plants and piranhas; the habitat these rivers supply is of immense value to the world’s aquatic organisms. According to the Living Planet Index, freshwater vertebrate species have declined by 81% since 1970, which is a steeper decline than both terrestrial and marine species. Conserving freshwater species is important to ensure that our ecosystems are resilient to changes in the environment, as these ecosystems provide us with many other benefits related to culture and economics as well.

Additionally, rivers help us regulate our climate, which is becoming more important with increasing concerns of climate change. Rivers across the world help reduce the amount of carbon in the atmosphere by flushing carbon from land into the ocean. Scientists have estimated that the world’s rivers transport 200 million tons of carbon to the ocean every year. This equals about 0.02% percent of the total mass of carbon in the atmosphere. Over thousands of years, that number really adds up to significant amounts of carbon taken out of the atmosphere, which can no longer contribute to atmospheric warming and climate change. Rivers also play a significant role in several other environmental processes such as nutrient cycling and air quality regulation.

Cultural Value

Rivers are vital to maintaining the function of ecosystems and the environment, yet their cultural importance is often overlooked. Since ancient times, rivers have influenced the way we live our everyday lives and our relationship to the environment, whether through farming, fishing, or powering homes. Fishing communities have always relied on the conservation of this resource to supply food and promote trade, especially among indigenous communities. Several agricultural communities benefit from rivers since farmers can use natural streams to develop and enhance irrigation systems to reliably water their crops. Despite the Nile River being the longest in the world, its cultural importance is like that of the Don River in Toronto. The Nile River was the means of life for settlements since 6000 BCE. The Nile holds religious significance since civilizations believed that the gods were responsible for annual flooding of the river, which deposited fertile soil along the riverbanks. Furthermore, the river was also a source of recreation among Egyptians, commonly used for water jousting and swimming.

In southern Toronto, like any other port, the city’s shoreline and the Don River have been built out extensively over the past century. Because of this development, and the sharp angles of the mouth of the Don River (which do not allow for the slowing of water like a winding river does), there is extensive flooding during rainy seasons. The federal, provincial, and municipal  governments have invested millions of dollars to re-naturalize the mouth of the Don River to reduce flooding within the city. The re-naturalization project has allowed for the revitalization of contaminated port lands in which oil and chemical industries historically dominated. Moreover, this will also allow city dwellers to escape the “city aesthetic” and immerse themselves in nature, hopefully improving mental and physical health. The Don River and Nile River are two of thousands that have the power to cultivate life and stimulate economic growth.

Economic Value

Rivers are of great economic importance, with many coastal communities globally depending on rivers to support their livelihoods. The most apparent economic value of our rivers is the drinking water source it supplies; it is estimated that 2 billion people receive their drinking water supply from dammed rivers. Indirectly, our existence fully depends on a river’s water supply as the driver of agricultural irrigation and hydropower. Less apparent is the dependence of the transport, tourism, and fishing industry on rivers. Historically, societies have always been found near water, due to the ease of transportation from ports. Rivers and their canals were vital to the transport of goods and people globally, and today there are more than 17,700 km of commercially significant navigation channels in the United States alone. Additionally, river tourism is a major economic resource supplying transportation, spectacular views, as well as supplying a sense of heritage and adventure. Rivers, particularly those that are left in their natural state, support some of the largest freshwater fish harvests in the world. A good example would be the Mekong River in East Asia which has an annual harvest of 4.4 million tonnes, valued at $17 billion USD per year. Unfortunately, migratory freshwater fish populations have declined by 76% since 1970, with the biggest driver being habitat degradation. Continual degradation of rivers due to human activities will undoubtedly jeopardize the vital source of food and livelihood that water supports, especially for vulnerable, rural communities and third world countries.

With increasing threats such as habitat degradation, climate change, and much more our rivers are at greater risk than ever before. River restoration projects are receiving more attention as a result, yet more can be done. In conclusion, there are many distinct reasons that make it necessary to maintain the health of our rivers across the world. From preserving the environment, to conserving our own culture and economies, humans have a high stake in the wellbeing of our rivers and their ecosystems. Individually, being a steward for rivers will help them continue to thrive for future generations.

This article is part of our March 2021 Western Student Editorial Series – a series that showcases the works of students in the Collaborative Specialization in Environment and Sustainability program. Read more articles from this series here!

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Schindler achieved many accomplishments in his 50+ year career. From 1968 to 1989, he directed the Experimental Lakes Area research facility in Ontario. Then, from 1989 onward, he was a Killam Memorial professor of ecology at the University of Alberta. He was appointed an Officer of the Order of Canada in 2004, and received more than 30 other awards and honours for his accredited work in environmental science. 

Schindler was a voice of science but also a voice of action. He spoke up about issues regarding environmental protection and policy in Canada, bringing these topics to the forefront of conversation, and always fighting to keep freshwater ecosystems free from industrial harm. In the A\J article, Schindler’s Pissed, Stephen Bocking interviewed Schindler about his thoughts on tar sands development in Canada. He shared his opinions, urging people to realize that scientific expertise is imperative to environmental assessment and decision making.

He will be remembered as an explorer, experimenter, ecologist, educator, conservationist, and much more. It is clear that his lifetime’s work of fighting for freshwater conservation will not be forgotten but will be foundational in conservation work going forward.

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…including ways we can right our environmental wrongs and help nature thrive…”

I do not believe that humans are inherently bad for nature. In history, humans lived harmoniously with nature for generations, living as an intertwined part of nature rather than separate from or in control of it. In fact, even today, in many places in the world, healthy ecosystems actually depend on human intervention and stewardship to thrive.

Does that mean the problem is that humans aren’t living in harmony with nature anymore, as we should be? Well, that may be a piece of it; however, in addition to being better environmental stewards by taking measures to protect the environment, I also believe that we should be taking reactive measures to fix the problems we have already caused. This is where ecological restoration comes into play. There are plenty of things individuals can do to help the environment, including ways we can right our environmental wrongs and help nature thrive in places it used to. Ecological restoration is just that – righting the wrongs, repairing the relationship.

WHAT? – Defining Ecological Restoration

The Society for Ecological Restoration (SER) is the leading organization in ecological restoration across the globe. SER defines ecological restoration as “the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed”^[1]. In other words, ecological restoration involves looking at spaces that used to be natural areas that have been ruined in some way as a result of human activities and disturbances, and then taking measures to turn those areas back into functional ecosystems.

The process of ecosystem restoration // SOURCE: Medium

An example of this process in a community could be transforming a damaged, unused parking lot space into a city park where native vegetation can be planted. A larger scale project might look like reverting a decommissioned, highly polluted mine site back into a thriving natural ecosystem. But, wait. Isn’t this supposed to be about how individuals can practice ecological restoration? Absolutely! Ecological restoration does include large scale projects, research, and experiments, since restoration ecology is an academic field of study. But the concept of restoring natural spaces can also be scaled down to the local, household level. So let’s get into what ecological restoration has to do with YOU.

WHY? – The Benefits

Before we discuss the how, we should discuss the why. Why should you care about ecological restoration? Because it benefits you!

Restoring natural areas can do wonders for human health and wellbeing by making our communities healthier and more desirable places to live. For example, transforming degraded areas into functional, natural spaces may improve air and water quality. Ecological restoration projects could also combat climate change, since plant life takes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and cools our environment.

Natural areas also directly benefit human mental health and wellbeing by providing recreational outdoor space, and making urban and suburban areas more aesthetically pleasing. Several studies, including one conducted by the NASA Earth Observatory, have shown the link between positive mental health and both the accessibility and proximity to green spaces. Green spaces are valued by many for enjoyment, boosting their mood, and inspiring deeper connections with nature. To break it down: Ecological restoration = more parks and gardens = more outdoor fun and good-looking cities = happier people.

Ecological restoration projects also usually provide increased and improved habitat spaces for wildlife. Now, I know this article is focused on why ecological restoration is relevant to people, and you are probably not a butterfly or toad looking for habitat, but hear me out. Some very important species are at risk of extinction since their habitat needs are becoming harder to meet in this era of urbanization and climate change. Many natural areas have been reduced or destroyed, and the animals who need to live in those spaces are struggling to survive in many cases. The karner blue butterfly is just one of many examples of a pollinator species that has gone locally extinct in Ontario.

The Karner Blue Butterfly // SOURCE: Nature Canada

Pollinators are especially valuable species for the health of the entire planet, so we really can’t afford to lose any more of them. It is estimated that up to 95% of flowering plants depend on pollination^[2]. In terms of plants that humans eat, that means roughly one out of every three bites of food that you take exists because of pollinators. So if pollinators can’t find habitats and continue to decline, our entire global food system could be at stake. Now that is a scary thought. Allow me to bring back the optimism. It is truly amazing that we have the capability to stop those environmental dooms from happening, and a key method to do so is ecological restoration!

HOW? – The Actions

The individual’s role in ecological restoration is simple: transform your areas with little to no diversity into biodiverse paradises, and take part in local community projects.

One great starting point for figuring out where you should do ecological restoration is identifying areas outdoors that have little to nothing growing there. The average North American lawn is a great example of this. What comes to mind when you think of a lawn? Probably an expanse of short, uniform grass. Let me explain why lawns are one of the areas with the most potential for ecological restoration at the household level.

Lawns are very common green spaces in urban and suburban areas, yet they have no ecological value. Many lawns actually do more harm than good for the environment because they require lots of water and can even release more greenhouse gases than they absorb. It is nonsensical that these precious areas of green space are being wasted on lawn grass!

The key to remember here is simply – restore your green spaces so they are welcoming to a diversity of species in order to create functional ecosystems and promote sustainability.

nstead of having a boring, homogenous lawn, you can transform that space into something more beautiful and ecologically-beneficial! Alternative lawns may look different depending on where you live and what kind of space you have available, but planting a diversity of native plants is a good start. Using a diversity of plants, meaning plants of different species, is important to create habitats. The more diverse your space is, the more types of pollinators and other species it will accommodate, and the more functional the ecosystem will be! If you take pride in the beauty of your yard, then now is the time to let your creativity shine! Check out Credit Valley Conservation’s tips and resources on how to “ecologically landscape” your lawn.

SOURCE: Hamilton Pollinator Paradise

If you don’t have the resources to completely change your lawn right away, don’t worry. You can also just let your grass grow longer instead of regularly cutting it, which can lower the lawn’s water requirements and still foster a space for pollinators. Even simply taking a break from raking leaves in the fall is a strategy to make your spaces more ecologically beneficial because leaf piles are actually super important spaces for small critters to live and hide, like butterfly larvae, salamanders, and shrews!

The key to remember here is simply – restore your green spaces so they are welcoming to a diversity of species in order to create functional ecosystems and promote sustainability.

 For those who don’t have a lawn and don’t have any areas where you can create habitats and gardens, there are still things you can do – just get involved. There are so many local ecological restoration community projects, practically across the whole globe. Finding a project near you that you can help with is just a few clicks away! Just research ecological restoration projects near you. You can also go to the project database on SER’s website to find some larger scale projects in your area if you’re interested in learning more! Many ecological restoration projects welcome volunteers with open arms. You could spend a day in nature by joining a team pulling invasive species in a natural area, or donate to a local initiative trying to turn an old landfill site into a park in your city, or even take a field trip to a conservation area! For example, the Ontario branch of SER hosts several field trips each year in order to introduce the public to restoration efforts near them. Even during the pandemic, they are hosting virtual field trips and webinars.

I study at the University of Waterloo and I like to go for walks on my study breaks. Recently, I took a walk in Filsinger Park, in Kitchener, and I found out that the Filsinger Park stream had been a restoration project. The city replaced the concrete stream channels with native vegetation to create a naturalized, functional stream ecosystem, and it is now a beautiful place to take a walk and appreciate nature! My point is, simply going for a walk and discovering ecological restoration in your city could be the first step in making your mark on the environment a positive one. Ecological restoration is relevant to you. We can all contribute to restoring natural spaces in our own backyards and communities. And by making these contributions, we can restore our relationship with nature, one step at a time.

^[1] Society for Ecological Restoration, “International Principles and Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration: Second Edition” (accessed January 7, 2021) <https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.ser.org/resource/resmgr/docs/ser_international_standards_.pdf>^[2] Ollerton J, Winfree R, and Tarrant S, “How many flowering plants are pollinated by animals?” (accessed January 7, 2021) <https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2010.18644.x>

^[2] Ollerton J, Winfree R, and Tarrant S, “How many flowering plants are pollinated by animals?” (accessed January 7, 2021) <https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2010.18644.x>

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Due to the continued human persecution of eastern wolves through decades of hunting and trapping, wolf and coyote species began to interbreed. Repeated admixture with both gray wolves and eastern coyotes (Canis latrans) has resulted in an alphabet soup of genetic hybridization, meaning that the wolves inhabiting Algonquin Park today represent a unique blend of historical and current canid ancestry.

Rather than lament the loss of a ‘pure’ eastern wolf, it is more important to realize that the admixed ancestry of the current wolves in Algonquin could actually be their greatest hope against an uncertain future existence. Put simply, the DNA from gray wolves and eastern coyotes could result in beneficial genetic changes for the Algonquin wolf population that can facilitate their adaptation and persistence in a rapidly changing world.

Both COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada) and COSSARO (Committee on the Status of Species at Risk in Ontario) have policies for genetic admixture and have recognized the Algonquin wolf as a listable entry. As of 2015, it was listed as threatened due to having between 250 and 1000 mature individuals remaining in the wild, and gained immediate protection from being harmed under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) in Ontario.

This isn’t where the story ends unfortunately and the reality is much more pessimistic. A few months later in July of 2016, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry decided to exempt the Algonquin wolf from the protection of the ESA; with the exception of Algonquin Provincial Park, Killarney Provincial Park, Queen Elizabeth II Wildlands Provincial Park, and Kawartha Provincial Park (and a few surrounding townships), hunting and trapping is allowed to continue. Considering that the main threat for wolf mortality outside of these protected areas is human-induced hunting and trapping, population expansion is unlikely. The populations of wolves in these protected areas will therefore become increasingly isolated from each other and will likely result in more interbreeding with coyotes, and possibly inbreeding between the wolves themselves, reducing their genetic ability to adapt to future challenges.

The grim reality of allowing a threatened species to be hunted is compounded by two additional factors: there are likely less wolves than we think, and we don’t know how many are hunted each year. According to a study published in Diversity and Distribution, the effective population size of Algonquin wolves (a measure of the risk of genetic decline) is too low to avoid inbreeding (short-term), and too low to suggest long-term persistence. Essentially, there aren’t enough mature wolves to optimistically say that they will still exist in the near future. If that isn’t concerning enough, Algonquin wolves look nearly identical to eastern coyotes and without a genetic test, there is no reliable way to tell them apart. Since eastern coyotes are not protected in these four areas, and the province does not require DNA samples from hunted and trapped animals, it is likely that more Algonquin wolves are being killed than we realize.

Algonquin wolves are a species endemic to Canada, and it falls on Canadians to protect them and advocate for their conservation, and we are failing them. As it stands, they are threatened, reduced to four increasingly isolated protected habitats, and are hunted and trapped more than we realize. Should current practices continue, Algonquin wolves will become more sparse and it will be Canadians that must harbour the blame for choosing not to help save a native species.

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Complete communities are a development of convenience for those living within them as they provide the necessities for daily needs. Complete communities encompass many options for housing, jobs, walkability, transport, retail, services and amenities while preserving natural features and significant areas of farmland. Historically, compact development was the norm before areas became more car-dependent – and are good models for the creation of complete communities. This approach of compact communities limits sprawling development while catering to all ages, previously existing infrastructure and all income groups. The Greenbelt Foundation published a report “Growing Close to Home: Creating Complete Rural Communities” which highlights the opportunities and challenges that rural communities across the Greenbelt face when attempting to create complete communities. A summary of their report will be provided but all details of the report including opportunities, challenges, case studies, community consultations and interview feedback from municipal staff can be viewed in full here.

Landscape in Halton

Source: Greenbelt Foundation

“The Greenbelt Foundation’s top-level objective is to contribute to rural prosperity and wellbeing, by leveraging the Greenbelt as an economic, social and environmental resource. For the Greenbelt to work it has to work for the people who live within and adjacent to it. The Growing Close to Home report is one example of how the Greenbelt Foundation shares resources and helps our municipal partners across the region build prosperous, resilient communities.”   – Edward McDonnell CEO, Greenbelt Foundation

The report was produced after thorough research, data collection from stakeholder engagement and reviewing of plans and policies. In an interview with Edward McDonnell, CEO of the Greenbelt Foundation, he mentioned that the Growth Plan for the Greater Golden Horseshoe, published in 2006, promotes the advancement towards complete communities in an urban setting but was lacking information regarding rural areas with the report filling this knowledge gap, specifically for areas within the Greenbelt.

With a goal of knowledge mobilization in mind for residents, municipal planners and for those in the economic development field, this report helps break the barriers in thinking that development of rural complete communities is impossible said Anna Shortly, Research and Policy Analyst, Greenbelt Foundation. It shows case studies of advancements in public transit and housing in certain areas of the Greenbelt that can be applicable in areas where there is doubt about its existence. McDonnell said that while rural communities present unique challenges, shared challenges also exist and the approach to addressing those issues such as those faced by the aging population, transportation, economic development and good compact use of land, are important to note.

The report focused on 7 factors that need to be considered for achieving a complete rural community and include: Management of rural growth; Housing; Active and public transport; Economic development; Character; Agriculture and environment; and Public consultation.

A rural Canadian community

Source: Infrastructure Canada

Firstly, concerning the management of growth in rural communities, it was seen that rural Greenbelt municipality growth varies and some areas are still building, attempting to build or are in the process of trying to provide more services and housing options for future growth. The goal of complete communities is to promote densification, compact-building and mixed-use areas to be directed to settlement areas to encourage population increase which will, in turn, support wastewater servicing (which affects the existence of other housing types apart from single-detached homes), municipal water and transit in a rural area. Directing growth in areas with pre-existing infrastructure capacity and municipal servicing is more economically feasible than in rural areas where these services will have to be established. Despite increased population densities allowing businesses and other services to increase their income, issues with parking, traffic, increased spending on infrastructure maintenance can arise.

Housing in rural communities

Source: Greenbelt Foundation

Secondly, on the topic of housing in rural communities, the report highlights that some municipalities are creating zoning by-laws and policies promoting a shift away from the current 80% single-detached houses to various denser and diverse housing styles including rental housing. These styles include townhouses, apartment buildings or condominiums, semi-detached houses with some areas being mixed-use between housing and commerce. This presents options to potentially meet the demand for more housing, for various age demographics and that fit a resident’s lifestyle such as seniors wanting to move into retirement homes. It was seen that many industries such as tourism and manufacturing are being affected in rural communities due to lack of employees because of the insufficient affordable housing resulting in employees commuting from outside of the municipality. However, diverse housing styles may not equate to affordable options but municipalities have been encouraging this through incentives (e.g. Community Improvement Plans) for the creation of apartments above stores, garden suites and secondary suites. This can ensure that people can live in the same area they work in. Shortly said this can help areas such as Blue Mountain that have seasonal labour shortages which claim to be due to the lack of housing.

Cycling in a rural community

Photographer: Shane Rounce via Unsplash

Thirdly, regarding public and active transportation in rural areas, car-usage is more dominant as it is more convenient for connecting people to places. Infrastructure promoting urban transit, trails, bike lanes and even sidewalks are inadequate or missing and are difficult to develop due to low user-ship. However, municipalities are conducting feasibility studies for transit and master plans for cycling and trails to determine what improvements can be made to rural communities. Shortly said from her data collection interviews, some cities had jobs but the lack of public transit to get people around affected the quantity of job positions filled. However, public transit is possible in rural communities and are convenient for those who cannot drive or may not have a car. On-demand transit is also being used as a cost-effective option in dispersed, low-density areas where a fixed-route transit is not present.

Economic development is necessary to ensure that rural communities thrive. The report states that local jobs are affected by close proximity to larger cities with many employment opportunities such as within the Greater Toronto Area. However, opportunities exist locally where stores and services can be attracted to the area and increase the development of waterfronts and historic downtowns. As well as, promote value-added agriculture which includes wineries/breweries, agri-tourism and equine-related businesses. Challenges arise when there are limited housing and transport options, unreliable broadband internet and inadequate investment in businesses.

The character of rural areas can also be threatened when there is development to create a compact community. However, municipalities seek to protect the character by defining what it accurately means through character studies. This will help identify valued physical landscaping and built form and ensure their protection in urban design policies and guidelines. A challenge with this is ensuring that new development occurs while preserving character but also conserving the unique and valued aspects of a community that residents perceive.

Simcoe County Farmland

Source: Greenbelt Foundation

“It’s a growth management question of how do you accommodate that growth in the most sustainable and equitable way as possible.” – Anna Shortly, Research and Policy Analyst, Greenbelt Foundation

Both agriculture and the environment are important to consider when creating complete communities as these areas have critical water sources and provincially designated natural heritage and crop areas. Shortly highlighted that investments in trail systems would help support the natural environment, preserve the beauty of natural areas, provide recreational amenities to residents and can also be designed in a way to support active transportation. Erin Riverwalk trail in the town of Erin is being constructed to connect two settlement areas which will improve accessibility and spending within the local community since people can be able to get to daily essential services from they live, Shortly said. She also noted that historically rural development expanded to the boundaries of farmlands and agricultural communities affecting their character. However, from her fieldwork, several areas within the greenbelt recognize that there is growth and are interested in doing it in the proper way to encourage a complete community while minimizing negative impacts on the environment and agriculture. McDonnell raised the point that one must be careful about disruption of the overall agricultural system when incorporating transportation and other factors as it can lead to risk of incompatible use such as increased traffic on previously rural roads or hinder the viability of farming in those areas.

The last factor to consider in the development of complete communities is public consultation.  This necessary step in the planning and development process allows for the voicing of concerns of residents who would be impacted directly by changes. Informing residents of these changes, challenges and the positive impacts can allow them to be more accepting of modifications in the community.

Rural landscape

Source: Third Way

McDonnell reiterated that the Greenbelt Foundation doesn’t make policy but rather informs it and the report is to help communities engage in conversation. Shortly also agreed by saying knowledge transfer and knowledge translation can encourage rethinking how things are being done and inspiring change. She highlighted that it’s not impossible to get a bus system in rural areas, as well as, confirming that community character can still be preserved despite population growth. Shortly noted that all these seven factors are interconnected and are needed to make a community complete.

More information from the Greenbelt Foundation can be found in an article about greenways and their contribution to complete communities in the Alternatives Journal’s September 2020 Issue “Getting There: The Ecosystem of Human Movement ”.

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Born into a farming family in a small town where corn stalks reign supreme, I saw firsthand the physical effort and mental stamina it takes to be a farmer. I watched my father work 12+-hour days, oftentimes for weeks on end.

While completing my bachelor’s degree in environmental studies, I began to learn about the environmental problems resulting from modern farming techniques used across the world: algal blooms in lakes from nitrogen and phosphorus run off; synthetic hormones and pharmaceuticals in factory farming; or the massive amounts of methane entering our atmosphere from raising livestock. I witnessed handfuls of protests and rallies, a few of which my close friends participated in, all sharing the same message: modern, technology-driven agriculture is ruining the world.

It was during this time I faced an internal conflict. How could my father participate in such a system? Are farmers like my father really turning a blind eye and simply disregarding the environmental degradation that comes with modern farming?

Here is what I’ve always understood: a healthy natural environment is the very thing farmers depend on for their income – an unbalanced natural ecosystem means a poor farmer. In other words, why would a singer want to purposely damage their vocal cords?  Perhaps the burden lies in the tools and procedures farmers must use to feed our growing population.  And our population keeps on growing.

In 1900, the average Canadian farmer grew enough food to feed about 10 people; by 2014, that same farmer now had to feed 120 people in the same timeframe. Today, that number is likely even higher. Yes, we have been increasing our ability produce more food per acre by modernizing farm equipment, improving irrigation methods, and using crop ration. But we cannot forget this success was also by the means of pesticides, hormones, genetic modification, and other developments which sit at the core of an environmentalist’s angst.

Our food productivity rates are now beginning to slow down, while population growth is not. Farmers must use the tools they have at their disposal to keep up with population demand. Unless we provide farmers with more environmentally friendly options proven to be equally, if not more, efficient than current methods like pesticides and insecticides, we cannot condemn the farmer. At least not if we want to keep eating.

Farms are changing. Canadian farmers represent an aging population, with the average farmer in their mid-fifties. As Michael Pollan said in the New York Times, “as a society, we devalued farming as an occupation and encouraged the best students to leave the farm for better jobs in the city”. Moreover, smaller farms are becoming obsolete – and, as a result, we are witnessing further consolidation of mega-farms, which will continue to leverage their economies of scale to operate as efficiently at possible, filling a demand that will only intensify as more farmers retire.  

We need to find better solutions which pose less strain on the environment, without sacrificing farmer yields. 

A possible solution lies in harnessing population growth and rethinking our food consumption. Project Drawdown listed family planning as one of the most effective solutions to solving our climate crisis, partially because it may relieve the strain on our current food systems. However, as the authors mentioned, linking family planning with the health of the natural environment remains controversial and, after all, farmers are more interested in planting more seeds!

Regardless of the controversy, should our planet reach 9.8 billion people by 2050 as current predictions show, we will need to feed all these people and feed them efficiently. 

SOURCE: Pexels

To add to the problem, a third of all food produced by farmers worldwide goes to waste. In the global north, we overfill our plates, then toss our leftovers in the trash. We throw out a bruised apple or tomato if we think it looks ugly or undesirable. All while farmers work overtime to grow this food. Simultaneously, the global south lacks the proper infrastructure for the food to reach them at all, and once it does, they struggle to store it properly. Rather than challenge the status quo of our food systems, we often protest the small farmer relying on genetically modified seeds or insecticides to make a living.

I recognize global food systems are inherently complicated, and larger economic powers and political influences direct this system. However, one thing can be sure; while populations rise and we continue to demand an aesthetically pleasing, never ending supply of food, farmers will need to use modern, more intensive farming techniques. We need to find better solutions which pose less strain on the environment, without sacrificing farmer yields. 

I am proud to come from a farming family. I am also proud to consider myself an environmentalist. I have learned many lessons so far and I know there are things I still do not understand. But one thing that I am certain about is that I recognize we are fighting for the same team, not against each other.

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I’ve always been intrigued by the ocean. I see it as the perfect combination of beauty and destruction, with unique aquatic life and the potential to cause deadly tsunamis. My fascination lies in the fact that the ocean’s majesty and mystery is not as easily accessible to be explored as the land but contains many interesting creatures. There is much that’s still undiscovered out there. Despite the lack of human interaction with the ocean at the scale of interaction with its terrestrial counterparts, our actions have been collectively impacting the ocean and aquatic life. One of the main visible and destructive issues is plastic pollution. 

Plastic pollution, such as 6-pack plastic rings, plastic bags and plastic straws, and its harmful impact on aquatic creatures (like sea turtles), is truly saddening. Currents and tides show that there are no limitations to the movement of plastic pollution from one part of the globe to another. These currents connect countries and their pollution, whether we choose to acknowledge it or not. What’s worse is when plastic pollution, in the form of microplastics, cannot be easily seen in the water, but can negatively impact fish when consumed. This can then bioaccumulate up the food chain to affect humans by being in their seafood. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) defines microplastics as pieces of plastic that are broken down into fragment sizes <5mm long. That’s about the length of a rice grain!

If plastic debris is removed from the water early on, this will reduce the risk of current irreversible cleanup when the plastic is broken down into microplastics and dispersed throughout the lower layers of the water column. 

Microplastics are smaller than a grain of rice. Source: The Washington Post

Microplastics have impacted species in unprecedented ways and cases of this will increase as plastic pollution in the ocean continue to disintegrate into microplastics. I, like most people (and previous studies), always thought that microplastics from accumulations at the surface of the water, were moved to the seafloor after settling in the water column, by simply sinking. However, a recently published article by Science Magazine came across my radar, proving that thought to be inaccurate. This study done by a group of researchers from the University of Manchester (United Kingdom), the National Oceanography Centre (United Kingdom), University of Bremen (Germany), IFREMER (France) and Durham University (United Kingdom), suggested that surface and bottom thermohaline–driven currents which are currents driven by temperature and salinity also influence settling of microplastics to the seafloor. These currents are important for distributing oxygen and nutrients resulting in the determination of biodiversity hotpots. 

This study sheds light on the importance of location on microplastics and how it can impact the food web and even deep seafloor ecosystems

The study was done in the Tyrrhenian Sea which is off the western coast of Italy and within the boundaries of the Mediterranean Sea. This Sea was chosen as it was representative of other oceanic areas in terms of its physical geography, global ocean current circulation patterns and speed of currents. As well as, the location and volume of plastic naturally existing in a controlled manner. The most eye-opening, jaw-dropping, finding of this study was that in 1 square metre of the seafloor, a total of 1.9 million pieces of microplastics were found. If this existed in 1 square metre of the ocean then just imagine how alarming the number will be if it were possible to survey all water bodies globally. This was the highest record of seafloor microplastics found in any study that was previously done, including submarine canyons and deep-sea trenches. In my opinion this is 1.9 million pieces too many, of plastic pollution.

Source: Science Magazine

This finding highlights that seafloor microplastics repositories exist globally. This also shows that areas of biodiversity hotspots are also being bombarded with microplastics. With changes in the intensity of current over time, this can disturb seafloor microplastics and contribute to bioaccumulation of microplastics up the food chain, especially in biodiversity hotpsots. This means that when seafloor microplastics are disturbed, they can move throughout the water and be consumed by small aquatic organisms or fish. When that aquatic life is eaten by a larger fish and this process occurs at several levels in the food chain, microplastics can then be present in seafood that humans eat. Therefore, you may be having a filling plate of fish with a free, hidden side of microplastics.

This study sheds light on the importance of location on microplastics and how it can impact the food web and even deep seafloor ecosystems. What is disheartening is that with increasing production of plastic products, the issue of microplastics will continue to exist and affect aquatic life. Can consumer behaviour and their demand for companies to switch to environmentally sustainable plastic alternatives help reduce the impact of microplastic pollution? Can people also be more responsible with their waste disposal? Microplastics is yet another anthropogenic-induced environmental issue that doesn’t seem to have a clean-up solution in sight.  

Photo Source: Triocean Istock

I hope that one day companies will take responsibility for their use of plastics. The ocean is a source of fascinating discoveries of which most are still yet to be revealed. Microplastics have been affecting aquatic life in ways that we know and do not fully understand as yet. Imagine in the future, fossils of an undiscovered species dating back to our lifetime are found. However, the species was never discovered at the time due to their vulnerability to microplastic pollution. Now imagine if that species was the answer to a presently incurable disease. May we be more conscious of how our waste is disposed, ensure that the coastlines are waste-free and avoid thinking that our actions only impact the land that we occupy.

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